Home > Research Resources > Learning > Journals (22-51)
Learning & Behavior
Journal of Music Therapy
(Entries 22-51)
Compiled by Jessica Lichty
Rohner, Stephen J., and Richard Miller. “Degrees of familiar and affective music and their effects on state anxiety.” Journal of Music Therapy, 2-15 No. 1. (1980): 17.
The success of the therapeutic use of music in various institutions and other research settings has pointed to the possibilities of using music to reduce anxiety in high-anxiety subjects. Ten sections of introductory psychology students (n=321) were randomly assigned to one of four treatment conditions or to the control group. Forms A and B of the eight State Questionnaire (8SQ) were administered in a counterbalanced fashion prior to and following the music (or no music) treatment. Results proved to be statistically non-significant. However, a trend was noted for sedative music to have some anxiety-reducing effects upon high state anxiety subjects. Implications of the study and a need for research investigating the effects of music on simultaneous psychological and physiological measures of anxiety were discussed.
Wolfe, David E.. “The effect of interrupted and continuous music on bodily movement and task performance of third grade students.” Journal of Music Therapy, 74-85 No. 2 (1982): 19.
This study examined the effects of continuous music and the contingent interruption of music on task performance and movement of two groups of third grade students: (a) normal, and (b) hyperactive. The task consisted of marking through designated letters contained in a typewritten story during four experimental conditions: 1, no music (silence); 2, continuous background music; 3, contingent interruption of background music; and 4, contingent presentation of background music. Three separate trials were completed. Task performance scores were determined by the total number of letters marked during each condition, while a frequency count of bodily movements was recorded and totaled during these same conditions. Findings indicated that: (1) the four experimental conditions had no significant effect on task performance (number of letters marked) or the number of bodily movements which occurred during the testing;(2) task performance scores improved significantly with each successive testing; however, no significant increase in bodily movement occurred with each testing; (3) no significant difference was found between the normal and hyperactive samples, on either task performance or bodily movement; and (4) considering the large number of observations, no significant relationship was discerned between bodily movement and task performance. These results are discussed in relationship to current noise research, and implications for educational/therapeutic applications are given.
Jellison, Judith A., and Nancy L. Miller. “Recall of digit and word sequences by musicians and non-musicians as a function of spoken or sung input and task.” Journal of Music Therapy, 194-209, No. 4 (1982): 19.
This study was conducted to determine if and how music training, stimulus characteristics, and task requirements influence immediate recall of sequential verbal material in a laboratory experimental setting. Specifically, this study examined sung verbal material as input and/or task to determine the effect of combined tonal and verbal information on the processing of verbal information. Two groups of adult subjects, musician and nonmusician, received five combinations of sung and spoken stimuli and response tasks. Recall tasks required each subject to sing or speak in sequential order a sung or spoken seven-item sequence of digits, words, and/or pitches. Results suggest that sequential verbal recall is affected by music training and stimulus characteristics. While the two groups did not differ significantly on overall recall, musicians’ scores were higher for sequential recall. For both groups, sung input and recall task resulted in a decrement in recall performance for digits. Recall performance for words, however, was equivalent in both sung and spoken conditions, even though attention theory would predict that a sung stimulus and task would present a greater load for attention than a spoken combination.
Gfeller, Kate E.. “Music mnemonics as an aid to retention with normal and learning disabled students.” Journal of Music Therapy, 179-189, No. 4 (1983): 20.
This study examined the effectiveness of melodic-rhythmic mnemonics as an aid to short-term memory. Subjects included 30 learning disabled and 30 normal male students, ages 9.0 to 11.9 years. All subjects participated in two experiments conducted over a period of 3 days. Experiment 1 consisted of a pretest, a single rehearsal of the memory task, and a posttest to examine the effects of group membership (learning disabled or normal) and the effects of rehearsal mode (music or verbal) on retention. Results from Experiment 1 indicated that both the normal subject membership and verbal rehearsal resulted in significantly greater recall at the.05 level. There was no significant interaction effect of group by rehearsal mode. In Experiment 2, four additional memory task rehearsals were completed to examine the effects of the following variables upon retention: group membership, rehearsal mode, teaching method (repetition versus repetition with modeling and cueing) and time. Results revealed that musical rehearsal in conjunction with modeling and cueing significantly aided retention for both groups (p<. 0001). Further hypotheses for main effects and interactions were statistically nonsignificant at the .05 level.
Morton, L.L., J.R. Kershner, and L.S. Siegel. “The potential for therapeutic applications of music on problems related to memory and attention.” Journal of Music Therapy, 195-208, No. 4 (1990): 17.
The effect of music memory and attention was explored with 16 right-handed males (age 10-12 years). Using a within-subjects, repeated-measures design, a verbal dichotic listening task (monosyllabic digits) was preceded by both exposure to music and exposure to quiet. Results indicated that prior exposure to the music: (a) increased memory capacity (number of digits reported) on the free-report task, and (b) reduced distractibility (intrusions from the non-attended ear) on the directed-report task. The results are interpreted within an arousal framework. It is suggested that music may increase bilateral cerebral arousal levels, possibly through the mediating role of the right hemisphere. Applications with anxious and distractible populations (i.e., attention deficit disordered) and implications for future research are discussed.
Davis, William B., and Michael H. Thaut. “The influence of preferred relaxing music on measure of state anxiety, relaxation, and physiological responses.” Journal of Music Therapy, 168-187, No. 4 (1989): 16.
The purpose of this study was to measure physiological and psychological responses to preferred, relaxing music. Eighteen subjects, nine females and nine males ranging in age from 18 to 43, were randomly selected for participation in the study. All music was provided by the subjects, who were tested individually on three separate occasions. Physiological data collected included: (a) vascular constriction, (b) heart rate, (c) muscle tension, and (d) finger skin temperature. Psychological data were assessed with the Spielberger State Anxiety Inventory and a seven-point Likert type scale for self-rated relaxation. Results indicated that state anxiety decreased and relaxation increased from pre to posttest conditions consistently across trials. The change, however, was significant only for state anxiety (p<.05). Physiological data showed that the music aroused and excited rather than soothed autonomic and muscular activity. Significant subject vs time interaction effects for muscle tension and vascular constriction and significant differences between subjects for finger skill temperature were found, providing evidence for the existence of idiosyncratic physiological responses within subjects.
Burleson, Sharon J., Center, David B., and Harolyn Reeves. “The effect of background music on task performance in psychotic children.” Journal of Music Therapy, 198-205, No. 4 (1989): 26.
This study attempted to evaluate the effect of background music on the task performance of psychotic children. The subjects were four male psychotic children, ranging in age from 5-9 years, who were students in a psychoeducational day treatment center. An ABAB single-subject design was used to evaluate the effect of background music on the dependent variable; the dependent variable was a color-coded sorting task. Data were analyzed using graphic analysis, a nonparametric statistic, and a criterion for clinical significance. Results supported a facilitative effect for background music on task performance. Implications of the results are discussed.
Eidson Jr., Carl E. “The effect of behavioral music therapy on the generalization of interpersonal skills from sessions to the classroom by emotionally handicapped middle school students.” Journal of Music Therapy, 206-221, No. 4 (1989): 26.
The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of a behavioral music therapy treatment program on student interpersonal behavior demonstrated in group sessions and in classrooms. Subjects included 25 emotionally handicapped middle school students ages 11 to 16 (M=13.1). Three subject groups were compared: (a) subjects receiving music therapy structured to target selected behaviors, (b) subjects receiving general music therapy, and (c) subjects in a no-contact control classroom. A changing criterion design was developed based on the selected behavior taught, monitored, and reinforced. A token economy system was established to reinforce students for demonstrating that week’s targeted behavior in the classroom and in music therapy sessions. During each group’s final session students used tokens to purchase preferred roles in a music video. Experimental subject scores for classroom behavior were almost twice as stable as scores for control subjects.
Stratton, Valerie N. and Annette H. Zalanowski. “The effects of music and paintings on mood.” Journal of Music Therapy, 30-41, No. 1 (1989):26.
Although difficult to define precisely, mood is frequently the focus of manipulation attempts. In this study, the ability of music on paintings to change mood was studied. The moods of depression and positive affect were measured using the Multiple Affect Adjective Check List (MAACL) before and after subjects were presented with music alone, paintings alone, or music paired with paintings. The music and paintings used were chosen to reflect the mood states of depression, positive affect, and neutrality. Neither music nor paintings alone significantly altered mood. Music and paintings paired did have significant effects, however, with the mood change always going in the direction of the music. Thus, depressing music paired with either a depressing or pleasant painting increased depression and decreased positive affect, and pleasant music paired with either a depressing or pleasant painting increased depression and decreased positive affect, and pleasant music paired with either type of painting had the opposite effect. In the paired conditions, pleasantness ratings of the paintings were influenced by mismatched music, while ratings of the music were unaffected by the paintings. Music appears to be dominant in determining the direction of mood change, but music alone does not produce the change. It is suggested that stimuli that allow cognitive appraisal are necessary to create a strong mood change.
Gunsberg, Andrew. “Improvised musical play: a strategy for fostering social play between developmentally delayed and nondelayed preschool children.” Journal of Music Therapy, 178-191, No. 4 (1988): 15.
This study examined the effectiveness of Improvised Musical Play (IMP), an intervention technique using improvised music and lyrics to facilitate social play between developmentally delayed and nondelayed children in mainstreamed settings. Ten videotaped episodes of IMP were conducted with 12 developmentally delayed and nondelayed children ages 3 to 5. It was hypothesized that episodes of IMP evolved through a four-phase progression, and that IMP would sustain episodes of social play between these children beyond durations predicted in the literature. Analysis of videotaped episodes indicated that each episode conformed to the hypothesized instructional sequence, and that IMP typically sustained social play episodes lasting more than three times the expected duration. Qualitative differences in the play of developmentally delayed and nondelayed children were obtained through microanalysis of selected taped segments. The elements of IMP most responsible for its effectiveness as an intervention technique are discussed in light of the reported lack of teacher involvement in children’s play.
Groeneweg, G., Stan E.A., Celser A., MacBeth L., and M.I. Vrbancic. “The effect of background music on the vocational behavior of mentally handicapped adults.” Journal of Music Therapy, 118-134, No. 3 (1988): 3.
This study evaluated the effects of background music on a variety of work related behaviors of 12 adults with developmental handicaps who were involved in the sorting of grocery coupons at either of two levels of task complexity. All individuals were systematically observed in their natural work-training environment for a period of 16 days under conditions of music and no-music presentations. The results indicated that the background music had a significant positive effect on work oriented behavior. In addition, non-work oriented behaviors were significantly less frequent in the presence of music, regardless of the type of task performed.
Hoskins, Carla. “Use of music to increase verbal response and improve expressive language abilities of preschool language delayed children.” Journal of Music Therapy, 73-84, No. 2 (1988):15.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between sung and spoken responses and standardized speech tests, and to investigate the use of music activities to increase language abilities. The 16 subjects were 2- to 5-year-old developmentally delayed and mentally retarded children. The procedure included administration of the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT), given in the usual manner and in a melodic version, and the Expressive One-Word Picture Vocabulary Test (EOWPVT). Subjects had previously been assigned to three separate groups. Following pretest administration, subjects participated in group music activities with emphasis on increasing expressive language skills, including antiphonal singing using picture cards. The experimental period continued for 10 weeks, after which time the same speech and music tests were re-administered. A strong relationship was found between the spoken and melodic versions of the PPVT. A significant improvement in PPVT-melodic test scores was found in the pre- to posttest analysis, which may indicate that antiphonal singing with picture cards was beneficial. Further use of antiphonal singing and replication of this study with a larger number of subjects are encouraged.
Spencer, Steven L. “The efficiency of instrumental and movement activities in developing mentally retarded adolescents.” Journal of Music Therapy, 44-50, No. 1 (1988): 15.
This study was conducted: (a) to determine whether instrumental or movement activities are more effective for developing trainable mentally retarded adolescents’ ability to follow directions, and (b) to determine the approximate number of treatment sessions necessary to influence significantly subjects’ ability to follow directions. An author-constructed pretest was administered to subjects (N=27) to determine their ability to follow directions. Interobserver reliability between an independent data collector and the experimenter was 97%. Subjects were matched according to their pretest scores and randomly assigned to two experimental groups and one control group. Music activities used with the instrumental activities and movement activities were the type of activities music therapists use most often to assess the ability to follow directions (Cassity, 1985). Control group activities consisted of music listening. Sessions met twice a week for 10 weeks, with results indicating that movement activities were more effective than instrumental activities for developing direction-following ability. Significant differences between the movement and control groups occurred after approximately 20 sessions; however, no significant differences were found between the posttest scores of instrumental and control subjects.
Edgerton, Cindy Lu. “The effect of improvisational music therapy on the communicative behaviors of autistic children.” Journal of Music Therapy, 31-62, No. 1 (1994): 31.
The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of improvisational music therapy, based on Nordoff and Robbins’ (1977) Creative Music Therapy approach, on autistic children’s communicative behaviors. Eleven autistic children, ranging in age from 6 to 9 years, participated in individual improvisational music therapy sessions for a period of 10 weeks. A reversal design was applied. The Checklist of Communicative Responses/Acts Score Sheet (CRASS), designed specifically for this study, was used to measure the subjects’ musical and nonmusical communicative behaviors. Results strongly suggest the efficacy of improvisational music therapy in increasing autistic children’s communicative behaviors. Significant differences were found between the subjects’ first session CRASS scores and those of their last sessions (p<.01). Also, abrupt and substantial decreases in scores were noted for all 11 subjects when reversal was applied.
Thaut, Michael H. and William B. Davis. “The influence of subject-selected versus experimenter-chosen music on affect, anxiety, and relaxation.” Journal of Music Therapy, 210-223, No. 4 (1993): 30.
The purpose of this study was to assess the effect of subject-selected and experimenter-chosen music on affect, anxiety, and relaxation. Fifty-four subjects (25 males and 29 females) ranging in age from 18-33 were randomly selected to participate in the study. All testing was done in the research laboratory of the Center for Biomedical Research at Colorado State University. Music used for the study consisted of (a) subject-selected music and (b) experimenter-chosen music that was selected on the basis of claims that the music was composed specifically to relieve tension and increase relaxation. Psychological data were assessed through the Spielberger Checklist (MAACL), and a visual analog scale. Results indicated that, on two of the three measures (Spielberger State Anxiety Inventory and visual analog scale), significant relaxation responses were achieved by the subjects in all three experimental conditions. Neither the presence/absence of music nor the choice of music appeared to make a difference in the relaxation response. The MAACL revealed that depression scores did not change under any of the three conditions, while all subjects reduced their hostility scores regardless of condition.
Wolfe, David E., and Candice Hom. “Use of melodies as structural prompts for learning and retention of sequential verbal information by preschool students.” Journal of Music Therapy, 100-118, No. 2 (1993): 30.
The present investigation examined the effects of particular combinations of spoken and sung stimulus input using both familiar and unfamiliar melodies on immediate recall and retention of sequential verbal material. Twenty-one 5-year-old students enrolled in a Head Start program initially participated in learning six individually selected telephone numbers, four of which were incorporated within melodic phrases, and two of which were spoken. Ten of these students completed the entire training. Using a within-subjects, repeated-measures design in which the training phases were counterbalanced across subjects, students progressed through each of the following training phrases (TP): 1. (a) telephone number with speech and contingent music; (b) telephone number with speech; 2. (a) telephone number with familiar melody and contingent music, (b) telephone number with unfamiliar melody and contingent music. A reverse chaining procedure was used to teach each number. Both telephone numbers within each training phase had to be repeated three times in a row for three consecutive sessions before the student was ready to progress to the next training phrase. During the contingent portion each student was allowed to select and play one of the following instruments: maraca, jingle stick, drum, or omnichord when he or she reached acquisition with any of the digits targeted during that particular session. The total number of trials it took for each student to learn each of the six telephone numbers was recorded along with each student’s instrument selection. Post-rehearsal checks and posttest scores were also recorded. Statistical analyses revealed that the mean number of trials it took students to learn telephone numbers couched within familiar melodies was significantly less than for the unfamiliar and spoken conditions. However, there were no significant differences in trials to criterion among the contingent and noncontingent conditions. Results also showed no significant differences in the number of digits remembered during post-rehearsal checks (immediate recall) and the posttest (retention) across the experimental phases. Further statistical analyses are given with implications for music therapy/education discussed.
Harris, Clarke S., Bradley Richard and Sharon K. Titus. “A comparison of the effects of hard rock and easy listening on the frequency of observed inappropriate behaviors: control of environmental antecedents in a large public area.” Journal of Music Therapy, 6-17, No. 1 (1992): 29.
Observation of clients at a state mental hospital by direct care staff indicated that they appeared to act in more inappropriate ways when “hard rock” or “rap” music was played in an open courtyard than when “easy listening” or “country” music was played. A study was conducted to compare the inappropriate behavior of clients when hard rock and rap music were played (21 days), followed by easy listening and country and western music (21 days). This comparison was followed by a reversal phase in which hard rock and rap music were again played (18 days). The behaviors of the clients were observed and recorded via a controlled methodology. The results demonstrated that more inappropriate behavior was observed under conditions in which hard rock and rap music were played than when easy listening and country western music were played. The implications of these findings are discussed.
Pollack, Nancy J., and Kevan H. Namazi. “The effect of music participation on the social behaviors of Alzheimer’s Disease patients.” Journal of Music Therapy, 54-67, No. 1 (1992): 29.
This study examined the relationship between music participation and social behavior of moderately to severely impaired Alzheimer’s individuals residing in a 24-bed facility for Alzheimer’s care and research. Eight subjects, three males and five females, ages 67-85, were treated individually in six 20-minute sessions over a period of 2 weeks. Each subject exhibited one or more responses during music therapy and adapted to cognitive and motor functioning level. Frequency of social behavior was measured in a pretest-posttest in each session using direct observation of subject behaviors recorded on a behavior checklist. Evaluation of behavioral observations at the close of the treatment period indicated a 24% increase in social behavior for the group and varying rates of increase for all subjects. A chi-square test indicated significant results (x2=14.2, df=1, p<. 001). A positive response of subjects to the music treatment was indicated during sessions by increased participation, smiling, eye contact, and verbal feedback expressing pleasure in the activities. The results of the study suggest that individual music activity with Alzheimer’s patients may facilitate interaction during music and encourage further social contact after music.
Davis, Cynthia Allison. “The effects of music and basic relaxation instruction on pain and anxiety of women undergoing in-office gynecological procedures.” Journal of Music Therapy, 202-216, No. 4 (1992): 29.
The purpose of this study was to ascertain the effects of music and relaxation techniques on pain and anxiety of women undergoing in-office gynecological procedures. Twenty-two subjects ranging in age from 17-43 years were all patients of the same gynecologist and had medical treatments requiring instrumentation of the cervix: colposcopy (microscopic examination); punch biopsy (removal of tissue by freezing with punch action instrument); oxcryosurgery (removal of tissue). Subjects were divided into two groups. Control subjects received the usual medical procedure without music, and experimental subjects received their choice of music through headphones after having been given basic relaxation instructions. Dependent variables during the procedure were pulse rate, respiratory rate, behavioral observation of overt pain, and self-report of pain and anxiety. Subjects were also telephoned 24 hours after the procedure and asked to report their level of pain and anxiety. During the medical treatment, data collection occurred at five designated points of the procedure: (a) following preparation of the patient in the treatment room; (b) upon the doctor’s entrance; (c) at the moment of punch biopsy (if that treatment was given to subject); (d) at the moment of cervical instrumentation (scraping); and (e) upon the doctor’s exit. Graphic analyses of the data revealed differences between the reactions of patients in the experimental and control groups. These differences were statistically analyzed using a Mann-Whitney U test. Control subjects demonstrated higher pulse rates, respiratory rates, behavioral idiosyncracies of pain, and anxiety reports throughout the procedures; however, these scores did not differ significantly from those of the experimental group. Analysis of data for subjects receiving a punch biopsy, an extremely painful gynecological procedure, showed that the selected control subjects (n=5) had a significantly higher respiratory rate (U=1.5, n1=3, n2=5, a=.05) than did the selected experimental subjects (n=4).
Caine, Janel. “The effects of music on the selected stress behaviors, weight, caloric and formula intake, and length of hospital stay of premature and low birth weight neonates in a newborn intensive care unit.” Journal of Music Therapy, 180-192, No. 4 (1991): 28.
The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of music on selected stress behaviors, weight, caloric and formula intake, and length of hospital stay. Subjects were 52 preterm and low birth weight newborns in a newborn intensive care unit (NBICU) who were in stable condition and restricted to isolates. Subjects in the experimental and control groups were matched for equivalency based on sex, birth weight, and diagnostic criticality. Eleven males and 15 females were assigned to the control group and received routine auditory stimulation. The experimental group of 11 males and 15 females received music stimulation, which consisted of approximately 60 minutes of tape recorded vocal music, including lullabies and children’s music, and routine auditory stimulation. Thirty-minute segments of the recordings were played alternatively with 30 minutes of routine auditory stimulation three times daily. Exposure to music stimulation occurred only during the infants’ stay in the NBICU. Results suggest music stimulation may have significantly reduced initial weight loss, increased daily weight average, increased formula and caloric intake, and significantly reduced length of the NBICU and total hospital stays and significantly reduced the daily group mean of stress behaviors for the experimental group. neonate and not with weight gains. Theoretical and practical aspects of these results are discussed.
Madsen, Sitka A. “The effect of music paired with and without gestures on the learning and transfer of new vocabulary: experimenter-derived nonsense words.” Journal of Music Therapy, 222-230, No. 4 (1991): 28.
The purpose of this study was to determine (a) if music affected the number of words learned when paired with a teaching activity using gestures, and (b) if it also affected the ability to transfer those words learned. Subjects were 60 first graders divided into three groups. Results revealed a significant increase in the number of words learned and transferred for the music-gesture treatment group over the gesture only treatment group and the control group.
Standley, Jayne M. “The effect of vibrotactile and auditory stimuli on perception of comfort, heart rate, and peripheral finger temperature.” Journal of Music Therapy, 120-134, No. 3 (1991): 18.
The purpose of this study was to ascertain the effect of music vs. the sound of a dental drill, paired with or without the vibrotactile stimulation of a Somatron (TM), on continuous, computerized recording of subject comfort and heart rate and intermittent recording of peripheral finger temperature. Subjects were 130 music majors divided into five auditory stimuli conditions (N=26) with 13 males and 13 females in each group: (a) vibrotactile stimulation with music followed by dental drill; (b) vibrotactile stimulation with dental drill followed by music; (c) free field music then dental drill (no vibration); (d) free field dental drill then music (no vibration); and (e) no auditory or vibrotactile stimuli. Each condition lasted 6.5 minutes. Results showed that the vibrotactile stimulation blunted perception, thereby reducing levels both of comfort and discomfort; this stimulation also reversed the effects of the two auditory stimuli on heart rate from those effects caused by free field presentation and significantly raised finger temperature for both auditory stimuli. Overall, music preceding the dental drill generally reduced the drill’s adverse effects while the drill preceding music generally enhanced music’s positive effects. Heart rate responses to music were varied. The initiation of all stimuli created an arousal response with acclimation occurring in approximately 30 seconds. Neither music nor the dental drill, alone or in combination with vibrotactile stimulation, produced a consistent heart rate response. Changes in heart rate seemed to be affected most by the sequence of stimuli across time. When music followed the drill, music decreased heart rate; however, when used in combination with the Somatron (TM), heart rate was increased. These results were identical to the effects of the drill following music when presented via the Somatron (TM), i.e., the same heart rate effects were found for opposite auditory stimuli and with opposite levels of perceived comfort.
Prickett, Carol A., and Randall S. Moore. “The use of music to aid memory of Alzheimer’s patients.” Journal of Music Therapy, 101-110, No. 2(1991): 28.
Ten patients whose diagnosis was probable Alzheimer’s disease and who resided in an Intermediate Care Facility in a state hospital were assessed for recall of material, both sung and spoken, with which there was lifelong familiarity. They were also assessed for recall of material, both sung and spoken, which was being presented for the first time. For each participant there were three individual assessment sessions, averaging 20 minutes in length. All sessions had a similar format of familiar material, sung and spoken, interspersed with new material and a few orientation questions. Each session was videotaped with a close-up of the patient’s face, and sound for the taping was augmented with rote microphone. Evaluation of the videotapes consisted of both listening and watching to count the number of words each patient recalled correctly. Overall, patients recalled the words to songs dramatically better than they recalled spoken words (including rhymed speech) or spoken information (M percentage for sung= 61.9; M percentage for spoken =37.4). Further analysis showed that, although long-familiar songs were recalled with much greater accuracy than a newly presented song (M percentage for familiar songs= 71.8, M percentage for new song = 42.6), most patients, whether or not they could recall the words to the new song, attempted to sing, hum, or keep time while the therapist sang (75% of the time). It would appear that patients diagnosed with probable Alzheimer’s disease can be stimulated to responsive participation with the use of long-familiar songs. Furthermore, with consistent practice, some patients apparently are capable of learning a new song, even when they do not seem able to recall new spoken material. Most who retain some self-care skills may be able to apprehend and react to music (by humming or keeping time) even when they cannot master learning the words.
Wentworth, Robin. “The effect of music and distracting noise on the productivity of workers with mental retardation.” Journal of Music Therapy, 40-47, No. 1 (1991): 28.
The effects of distracting noise and easy listening music on the productivity of mentally retarded workers was studied in this research. Participants in a work center of a state institution for developmentally disabled persons served as subjects. Their diagnoses ranged from profound to borderline mental retardation and profound to no deficits in the area of adaptive behavior. A repeated measure experimental design was used to test worker productivity over three treatment conditions: (a) distracting noise, (b) music, and (c) distracting noise and music. The tasks performed by subjects were their regular work duties and soldering coils. The measure of productivity was a piece rate count, by the researcher and a confederate, of items produced. A time period featuring absence of distracting noise and music was used to obtain a base rate of production. The research then introduced to the experiment room either distracting noise, music, or both distracting noise and music. The experiment failed to confirm the research hypothesis that differences in productivity would exist among the treatment conditions.
Strauser, Jill M. “The effects of music versus silence on measures of state anxiety, perceived relaxation, and physiological responses of patients receiving chiropractic interventions.” Journal of Music Therapy, 88-105, No. 2: (1997): 34.
This study examined the effects of music versus silence on measures of state anxiety, perceived relaxation, and physiological responses of chiropractic patients prior to and immediately following chiropractic treatment interventions. Subjects (N=30) were randomly assigned to one of 3 conditions. The control group (I) was instructed to relax in silence. The first experimental group (II) listened to a preferred style of music with relaxation instruction. The other experimental group (III) listened to New Age music with deep-breathing visualization relaxation.
Gowensmith, William Neil, and Larry J. Bloom. “The effects of heavy metal music on arousal and anger.” Journal of Music Therapy, 33-45, No. 1 (1997): 1997.
Despite the controversy surrounding heavy metal music and its effects on listeners’ levels of arousal and anger, a methodologically sound experimental study has not demonstrated this relationship. This study incorporated an experimental design in order to utilize individual differences of subjects as a moderating variable in determining the effects of heavy metal music on listeners’ anger levels of arousal and anger. It was found that heavy metal music aroused all subjects but that increases in subjects’ anger levels were due to an interaction of heavy metal music and the listener’s musical preference. Overall, subjects who identified themselves as heavy metal fans did not show higher levels of anger than subjects who were not heavy metal fans. It is suggested that the effects of heavy metal music are related to the individual responses of the listeners.
Carruth, Ellen K. “The effects of singing and the spaced retrieval technique on improving face-name recognition in nursing home residents with memory loss.” Journal of Music Therapy, 165-186, No. 3 (1997): 34.
The present study examined the effects of singing and the spaced retrieval technique on the naming abilities of male residents of a nursing home. The primary diagnoses of the participants included Alzheimer’s disease, stroke, dementia, senile dementia, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). An ABA experimental design was implemented. Data analyses show an improvement in the percentage of correct face-name recognition response during the music condition for 4 of the 7 participants. Results of this study indicated that music therapy is a good resource to improve the naming abilities of some nursing home residents with memory loss.
Brotons, Melissa and Patricia K. Pickett-Cooper. “The effects of music therapy intervention on agitation behaviors of Alzheimer’s disease patients.” Journal of Music Therapy, 2-18, No. 1 (1996): 33.
The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of live music therapy on agitation behavior of Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) patients during and after music therapy intervention. A second purpose was to determine if there was a difference in the effect of music therapy between those patients who had a musical background and those who did not. A third purpose was to examine if there was a difference between music therapists’ and caregivers’ post-music therapy agitation scores. Agitation behavior in this study was defined as overt behavior that indicates restlessness, hyperactivity, or subjective distress. The dependent measures included: (a) scores on the Agitation Behavior Scale, and (b) number of dosages of PRN medication. Subjects for this study were 20 residents, 17 females and 3 males, from four different facilities in the Northwest. Their age range was 70-96 (M=82, SD=6.57). The criteria for selection were: (a) a primary diagnosis of dementia with strong medical and behavioral indications that a post mortem examination would indicate the disease, (b) the presence of agitation, (c) sufficient verbal ability to answer simple social and activity questions, and (d) the written consent of the patient’s guardian or representative. Subjects were placed into groups of three or four. Subjects’ agitation behaviors were based on observation of the subjects’ behavior during the morning just prior to the beginning of music therapy (baseline). Music therapy sessions were videotaped for post-hoc agitation behavior analysis during music therapy, and for reliability purposes. Once music therapy sessions were over, subjects’ behavior was observed for the next 20 minutes by a music therapist and a caregiver and again documented. In addition, subjects’ charts were reviewed weekly to note the number of dosages of PRN medication administered each day of the week. The results of a two-factor analysis of variance with repeated measures show no effects with respect to music background (F1=1.79, p=.20), but identify significant main effects of agitation behavior (F3=16.33, p=.0001). Subsequent Fisher PSLD tests indicate that subjects appeared significantly more agitated before music therapy (M=11.46) than during either of the two music therapy observations (M=7.68 & M=7.52, respectively) and after music therapy sessions (M=8.37). No two-way interaction between music background and agitation behavior (F3=1.34, p=.28) was noted. Results of an independent t test between music therapists’ and caregivers’ post-music therapy agitation scores for music therapists compared to those of caregivers indicate no significant differences between scores [t(8)=.67, p=.50]. Implications for music therapy practice are discussed.
Cassidy, Jane W. and Jayne M. Standley. “The effect of music listening on physiological responses of premature infants in the NICU.” Journal of Music Therapy. 208-227, No. 4 (1995): 32.
In this study 20 low birthweight infants of 24-30 weeks gestation age who were being oxygenated in a Neonatal Intesive Care Unit (NICU). served as control subjects during their first weeks of life. Ten infants listened to lullabies through Biologic insert earphones with ALGO Ear Couplers (TM) and 10 infants served as control subjects. All subjects passed an auditory brainstem response (ABR) procedure to insure that audiological responses were consistent with normal hearing. Experimental treatment occurred across 3 days and was conducted in an ABABABABABA design, with data collected during five segments of four minutes each of silence alternating with four segments of four minutes each of music. Oxygen saturation levels, heart rate, respiratory rate, and number of apnea/bradycardia episodes were recorded once per minute for the duration of baseline and treatment conditions (36 minutes). Results indicated that music was not contraindicated in the first week of life for these very low birthweight infants for whom sensory stimulation is usually restricted. In fact, music had noticeable positive effects on oxygen saturation levels, heart rate, and respiration rate. No increase in apnea/bradycardia episodes following music treatment were observed.
Buday, Evelyn M. “The effects of signed and spoken words taught with music on sign and speech imitation by children with autism.” Journal of Music Therapy, 189-202, No. 3 (1995): 32.
The intent of this study was to explore the use of music as a strategy to promote better memory for manual signs with children with autism who have been exposed to simultaneous communication. The 10 children tested were taught a total of 14 signs under two conditions. One condition involved signs taught in conjunction with music and speech. The other condition involved signs taught in conjunction with rhythm and speech. The number of correctly imitated signed words and correctly imitated spoken words (out of 7 total) were measured under both conditions. Results from 2 factorial ANOVAs indicated significant main effects for condition type (music vs. rhythm) for both the number of imitated signed words (F=6.54, p<.05) and the number of imitated spoken words (F=8.33, p<.02). In each case, correct imitation favored music condition training. The results are discussed in terms of representing a potential first step in using music within a simultaneous communication context to promote better pragmatic skills with children with autism.